Extensive Independent Amplification of Platy-1 Retroposons in Tamarins, Genus Saguinus.

Platy-1 retroposons are short interspersed elements (SINEs) unique to platyrrhine primates. Discovered in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) genome in 2016, these 100 bp mobile element insertions (MEIs) appeared to be novel drivers of platyrrhine evolution, with over 2200 full-length members across 62 different subfamilies, and strong evidence of ongoing proliferation in C. jacchus. Subsequent characterization of Platy-1 elements in Aotus, Saimiri and Cebus genera, suggested that the widespread mobilization detected in marmoset (family Callithrichidae) was perhaps an anomaly. Two additional Callithrichidae genomes are now available, a scaffold level genome assembly for Saguinus imperator (tamarin; SagImp_v1) and a chromosome-level assembly for Saguinus midas (Midas tamarin; ASM2_v1). Here, we report that each tamarin genome contains over 11,000 full-length Platy-1 insertions, about 1150 are shared by both Saguinus tamarins, 7511 are unique to S. imperator, and another 8187 are unique to S. midas. Roughly 325 are shared among the three callithrichids. We identified six new Platy-1 subfamilies derived from Platy-1-8, with the youngest new subfamily, Platy-1-8c_Saguinus, being the primary source of the Saguinus amplification burst. This constitutes the largest expansion of Platy-1 MEIs reported to date and the most extensive independent SINE amplification between two closely related species.

Phylogenetics and an updated taxonomic status of the Tamarins (Callitrichinae, Cebidae).

Traditionally, Saguinus has been organized into six taxonomic groups: bicolor, inustus, midas, mystax, nigricollis, and oedipus. After recent revisions, taxonomic reclassifications were proposed, including (1) the recognition of Leontocebus as a new genus, and (2) the subdivision of Saguinus into three subgenera. Nonetheless, the contradictory nature of these results reinforces the inconsistency concerning the monophyletic status of tamarins and its interspecific phylogeny. Therefore, in this study, we carried out phylogenetic inferences of Saguinus based on 44 molecular markers, of which 37 were from nuclear DNA and seven from mitochondrial DNA. A final dataset of 24,202 base pairs (bp) was obtained from 60 specimens of all recognized species of Saguinus and, also representatives of two main lineages of Leontocebus. Phylogenetic hypothesis was obtained from Maximum Likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) methods. We also construct a Species Tree and a fossil-calibrated multi-locus phylogeny to estimate the time of divergence of Tamarins. Our phylogenetic results validated Leontocebus, or nigricollis group, as monophyletic, and recovered additionally three main clades within Saguinus. Same topology was obtained by the Species Tree. These clades correspond to (1) inustus + mystax groups, (2) oedipus group and (3) bicolor + midas group. Our results show support for a 10.5-million-year-old split between Leontocebus and the remaining Saguinus, followed by two other cladogenetic events, around 9.3 and 7.2 mya, which lead to the rise of the main clades of Saguinus. These phylogenetic data, in concert with the consistent morphological, ecological behavior and biogeographic evidence suggest a new classification for the Amazonian and trans-Andean tamarins. Therefore, we support the validation of Leontocebus as genus and recommend the split of Saguinus into three genera: (1) Tamarinus (inustus and mystax groups), (2) Oedipomidas (oedipus group), and (3) Saguinus (bicolor and midas groups).

Evolution and biogeographic history of the Saguinus mystax group (Primates, Callithrichidae).

The Saguinus mystax group traditionally includes three species, S. mystax, S. labiatus, and S. imperator. The additional inclusion of S. inustus is argued on molecular grounds, which have an important impact on our comprehension of the phenotypical evolution and biogeography of the group. Here, we investigate the evolutionary events leading to the diversification of the S. mystax group, integrating phylogenetic, temporal, and geographic information with the current knowledge of the Amazonian paleogeographical history. The examination of 208 specimens of Saguinus resulted in 25 morphological characters, of which 13 were used for the first time in a phylogenetic analysis of the genus. Morphological characters were also combined with molecular data and analyzed using Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood methods. Trees resulting from morphological and combined data recovered a monophyletic S. mystax group, including S. inustus, whose inclusion was supported by two morphological synapomorphies. Molecular based age estimates place the origin of Saguinus in the middle Miocene (17.4-13 million years ago [mya]), whereas the S. mystax group originated in an interval between 12 and 6 mya. Our results also suggest that the ancestral area of Saguinus was western Amazon, from where they dispersed to their current distribution after the end of the Pebas lakes system. The diversification events in the S. mystax group are related to the Pliocene development of the modern Amazon river network associated to the uplift of Fitzcarrald Arch.

Full-length MHC class II alleles in three New World monkey species.

Thirty newly identified full-length MHC class II alleles in three New World monkey species.

Genetic correlations in the dental dimensions of Saguinus fuscicollis.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study are to describe genetic correlations between dental dimensions in a platyrrhine primate, to assess whether the brown-mantled tamarin dentition exhibits genetic modularity by tooth type, and to discuss the relationship between body size reduction and the genetic architecture of dental traits. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Genetic correlations were estimated for linear dental measurements, estimated crown areas, and measures of relative premolar and molar size from 302 individuals, using a pedigree of 386 individuals, with maximum likelihood variance decomposition in SOLAR. RESULTS: Genetic correlation estimates indicate strong genetic integration in the dentition of brown-mantled tamarins, with little evidence of modularity by tooth type, within and between the maxilla and mandible. The relative molar size variable hypothesized to be genetically patterned in baboons is not significantly heritable, and relative premolar size does not meet the criteria to be considered genetically patterned in this population. DISCUSSION: These results demonstrate variation in the pattern of genetic correlations between dental dimensions in primates, providing evidence of evolution of the genetic architecture in the callitrichine lineage. Genetic integration of dental dimensions without modularity by tooth type, as demonstrated here, is expected to constrain dental evolution in ways that modularity would not. The role of body size reduction in the callitrichine lineage in the evolution of the genetic architecture of the dentition is discussed. Quantitative genetic analyses of dental dimensions in more primate populations will provide greater evidence of variation and evolution in the genetic architecture underlying primate dental morphology.

Genetic contributions to dental dimensions in brown-mantled tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis) and rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).

OBJECTIVES: The use of dental metrics in phylogenetic reconstructions of fossil primates assumes variation in tooth size is highly heritable. Quantitative genetic studies in humans and baboons have estimated high heritabilities for dental traits, providing a preliminary view of the variability of dental trait heritability in nonhuman primate species. To expand upon this view, the heritabilities and evolvabilities of linear dental dimensions are estimated in brown-mantled tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis) and rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Quantitative genetic analyses were performed on linear dental dimensions collected from 302 brown-mantled tamarins and 364 rhesus macaques. Heritabilities were estimated in SOLAR using pedigrees from each population, and evolvabilities were calculated manually. RESULTS: Tamarin heritability estimates range from 0.19 to 0.99, and 25 of 26 tamarin estimates are significantly different from zero. Macaque heritability estimates range from 0.08 to 1.00, and 25 out of 28 estimates are significantly different from zero. DISCUSSION: Dental dimensions are highly heritable in captive brown-mantled tamarins and free-ranging rhesus macaques. The range of heritability estimates in these populations is broadly similar to those of baboons and humans. Evolvability tends to increase with heritability, although evolvability is high relative to heritability in some dimensions. Estimating evolvability helps to contextualize differences in heritability, and the observed relationship between evolvability and heritability in dental dimensions requires further investigation.

Chromosome painting of the red-handed tamarin (Saguinus midas) compared to other Callitrichinae monkeys.

Here we present, for the first time, the complete chromosome painting map of Saguinus midas, the red-handed tamarin. Chromosome banding and painting with human chromosome-specific probes were used to compare the karyotype of this species with those of four other Neotropical primates of the subfamily Callitrichinae: Leontopithecus rosalia, Callithrix geoffroyi, C. penicillata, and Mico argentatus. The chromosome painting map of S. midas was identical to that of L. rosalia and other previously studied tamarin species (genera Saguinus and Leontopithecus). The three marmoset species studied (genera Callithrix and Mico) differed in the painting pattern of four human probes (chromosomes 1, 2, 10, and 16). These paints identified the presence or absence of chromosome associations HSA 1/10 and 2/16 in these taxa. By integrating our data with those from the literature, we were able to propose an ancestral Callitrichinae karyotype. The genera Saguinus and Leontopithecus (tamarins) conserve the ancestral Callitrichinae karyotype, while Mico and Callithrix (marmosets) show more derived karyotypes due to chromosome translocations and fissions that occurred during the evolution of these taxa.

Characterisation of the hepatitis B virus cross-species transmission pattern via Na+/taurocholate co-transporting polypeptides from 11 New World and Old World primate species.

The hepatic Na+/taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide (NTCP in man, Ntcp in animals) is the high-affinity receptor for the hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis D (HDV) viruses. Species barriers for human HBV/HDV within the order Primates were previously attributed to Ntcp sequence variations that disable virus-receptor interaction. However, only a limited number of primate Ntcps have been analysed so far. In the present study, a total of 11 Ntcps from apes, Old and New World monkeys were cloned and expressed in vitro to characterise their interaction with HBV and HDV. All Ntcps showed intact bile salt transport. Human NTCP as well as the Ntcps from the great apes chimpanzee and orangutan showed transport-competing binding of HBV derived myr-preS1-peptides. In contrast, all six Ntcps from the group of Old World monkeys were insensitive to HBV myr-preS1-peptide binding and HBV/HDV infection. This is basically predetermined by the amino acid arginine at position 158 of all studied Old World monkey Ntcps. An exchange from arginine to glycine (as present in humans and great apes) at this position (R158G) alone was sufficient to achieve full transport-competing HBV myr-preS1-peptide binding and susceptibility for HBV/HDV infection. New World monkey Ntcps showed higher sequence heterogeneity, but in two cases with 158G showed transport-competing HBV myr-preS1-peptide binding, and in one case (Saimiri sciureus) even susceptibility for HBV/HDV infection. In conclusion, amino acid position 158 of NTCP/Ntcp is sufficient to discriminate between the HBV/HDV susceptible group of humans and great apes (158G) and the non-susceptible group of Old World monkeys (158R). In the case of the phylogenetically more distant New World monkey Ntcps amino acid 158 plays a significant, but not exclusive role.

[Chromosomal aberrations in a subfertile cotton-top tamarin]. / Chromosomen-Veränderungen bei einem subfertilen Lisztäffchen.

INTRODUCTION: The present case report describes a female cotton-top tamarin which was taken over by the Zoo Basel to form a new breeding pair. The animal demonstrated increased marking behavior without any obvious medical reasons, dominant behavior, failure to become pregnant and its external genitals were ambiguous. A disorder of the sexual development (DSD) was suspected by the zoo veterinarians and in a first step, the chromosomes of the monkey were analyzed. Six cell lines with different karyotypes were observed. The two most frequent cell lines had a 46,XX or a 46,XY karyotype which are normal chromosome complements of female and male cotton-top tamarins, respectively. The other much less frequent cell lines showed numerical aberrations with and without a marker chromosome. Specific biological features of the Callitrichidae, such as natural twinning and genetic chimerism impeded the clarification of the pathogenesis and prevented a reliable prognosis on the fertility of the cotton-top tamarin.

Differential chromosomal organization between Saguinus midas and Saguinus bicolor with accumulation of differences the repetitive sequence DNA.

Saguinus is the largest and most complex genus of the subfamily Callitrichinae, with 23 species distributed from the south of Central America to the north of South America with Saguinus midas having the largest geographical distribution while Saguinus bicolor has a very restricted one, affected by the population expansion in the state of Amazonas. Considering the phylogenetic proximity of the two species along with evidence on the existence of hybrids between them, as well as cytogenetic studies on Saguinus describing a conserved karyotypic macrostructure, we carried out a physical mapping of DNA repeated sequences in the mitotic chromosome of both species, since these sequences are less susceptible to evolutionary pressure and possibly perform an important function in speciation. Both species presented 2n = 46 chromosomes; in S. midas, chromosome Y is the smallest. Multiple ribosomal sites occur in both species, but chromosome pairs three and four may be regarded as markers that differ the species when subjected to G banding and distribution of retroelement LINE 1, suggesting that it may be cytogenetic marker in which it can contribute to identification of first generation hybrids in contact zone. Saguinus bicolor also presented differences in the LINE 1 distribution pattern for sexual chromosome X in individuals from different urban fragments, probably due to geographical isolation. In this context, cytogenetic analyses reveal a differential genomic organization pattern between species S. midas and S. bicolor, in addition to indicating that individuals from different urban fragments have been accumulating differences because of the isolation between them.

Tamarins: Insights into monogamous and non-monogamous single female social and breeding systems.

Tamarins are reported to live in small multimale-multifemale groups characterized by a single breeding female. Here we present information on the composition and genetic relatedness of individuals in 12 wild-trapped groups of Weddell's saddleback tamarins (Saguinus weddelli) from northern Bolivia to determine if groups are best described as nuclear or extended families suggesting social monogamy or whether groups contain several unrelated same sex adults indicative of social polyandry/polygyny. Mean group size was 6.25 including an average of 2.16 adult males (range 1-4) and 2.08 adult females (1-3). No group contained only one adult male and one adult female and 25% of groups contained two parous females. We estimated the genetic relatedness among individuals using 13 polymorphic microsatellite markers. Across the population, mean relatedness was low and not significantly different among adult males versus among adult females, suggesting that both sexes disperse from their natal groups. Adults of both sexes also tended to have close same-sex adult relatives within their groups; relatedness among adult females of the same group averaged 0.31 and among adult males was 0.26. This suggests that tamarins of one or both sexes sometimes delay dispersal and remain as adults in their natal group or that emigration of same-sexed relatives into the same group may be common. Finally, parentage analyses indicated that, whereas the parents of juveniles generally were present in the group, this was not always the case. Based on these data, published reports of the presence of multiple breeding males and occasionally multiple breeding females in the same group, and the fact that less than 10% of groups in the wild contain a single adult male-adult female pair, we argue that social polyandry best characterizes the composition of tamarin groups and that monogamy is not a common mating pattern in Saguinus weddelli or other tamarin species.

Effects of Forest Fragmentation on Genetic Diversity of the Critically Endangered Primate, the Pied Tamarin (Saguinus bicolor): Implications for Conservation.

We analyzed DNA at 9 microsatellite loci from hair samples of 73 pied tamarins (Saguinus bicolor) located in 3 urban forest fragments and a biological reserve in the city of Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. The forest fragments had become isolated from the continuous forest 6-15 years prior to the time of sampling. Tests for reduction in population size showed that all groups from the urban forest fragments had undergone genetic bottlenecks. Pied tamarins in this region historically formed one biological population, and the fragments were connected by high levels of gene flow. These results indicate the need to implement a conservation plan that allows for connectivity between the urban fragments, as well as protection from further constriction. Such connectivity could be achieved via the creation and protection of corridors. In addition to the current population trends explained by anthropogenic actions, the species also shows a trend of long-term demographic decline that has resulted in approximately an order of magnitude decrease and began 13 thousand years ago.

Re-description and assessment of the taxonomic status of Saguinus fuscicollis cruzlimai Hershkovitz, 1966 (Primates, Callitrichinae).

Cruz Lima's saddle-back tamarin Saguinus fuscicollis cruzlimai Hershkovitz, 1966, was described from a painting by Eládio da Cruz Lima in his book Mammals of Amazonia, Vol. 1, Primates (1945). The painting was of four saddle-back tamarins from the upper Rio Purus, one of them distinct and the inspiration for Hershkovitz to describe it as a new subspecies. Its exact provenance was unknown, however, and the specimen was lost. Surveys in the Purus National Forest in 2011 resulted in sightings of this tamarin along the north bank of the Rio Inauini, a left-bank tributary of the middle Purus, and also on the left bank of the Purus, north and south of the Rio Inauini. It is possible that it extends north as far as the Rio Pauini, and that S. f. primitivus Hershkovitz, 1977, occurs north of the Pauini as far the Rio Tapauá, both also left-bank tributaries of the Purus. Morphometric and molecular genetic analyses and the coloration of the pelage indicate that this tamarin differs from its neighbors sufficiently to be considered a full species. In his doctoral dissertation [2010, Taxonomy, Phylogeny and Distribution of Tamarins (Genus Saguinus Hoffmannsegg, 1807) Georg-August Universität, Göttingen], C. Matauschek found that saddle-back and black-mantle tamarins diverged from the tamarin lineage around 9.2 million years ago; time enough to warrant their classification in a distinct genus. Leontocebus Wagner, 1840, is the first name available. In this article we re-describe Cruz Lima's saddle-back tamarin. We propose a neotype with a precise locality, and make it a full species in the genus Leontocebus.

Genetic characterization and structure of the endemic Colombian silvery brown bare-face tamarin, Saguinus leucopus (Callitrichinae, Cebidae, Primates).

We analyzed 115 Saguinus leucopus, from four Colombian departments (Antioquia, Bolivar, Caldas and Tolima ), for 701 bp of the mt COII gene and at 10 microsatellite loci to estimate gene diversity levels, possible molecular subspecies and historical demographic changes in this species. This endemic Colombian species showed an elevated gene diversity in this gene, although its geographical distribution is very restrictive and extremely threatened by habitat fragmentation. The mt COII gene did not show any geographical structure in the distribution of the haplotypes within this species, but it did show a noteworthy population expansion throughout the history of this species. A Bayesian analysis showed that the haplotype diversification of this species began around 1.6 million years ago (MYA), whilst a haplotype network gave the beginning of this diversification at around 0.5-0.6 MYA. Forty-seven individuals out of the 115 were analyzed for 10 DNA microsatellites. The genetic diversity was relatively elevated for this kind of marker too, and comparable to that found in other Neotropical monkeys with a wider geographical distribution. Two gene pools were detected with the microsatellites, one in the northern distribution area (Antioquia) and the other in the southern distribution area (Tolima). No tests detected any bottleneck affecting this population; however, two procedures (k test and Kimmel et al. 1998 test) detected significant population expansion for the microsatellite markers, like that seen with the mt COII gene.

Quantitative molecular assessment of chimerism across tissues in marmosets and tamarins.

BACKGROUND: Marmosets are playing an increasingly large and important role in biomedical research. They share genetic, anatomical, and physiological similarities with humans and other primate model species, but their smaller sizes, reproductive efficiency, and amenability to genetic manipulation offer an added practicality. While their unique biology can be exploited to provide insights into disease and function, it is also important that researchers are aware of the differences that exist between marmosets and other species. The New World monkey family Callitrichidae, containing both marmoset and tamarin species, typically produces dizygotic twins that show chimerism in the blood and other cells from the hematopoietic lineage. Recently, a study extended these findings to identify chimerism in many tissues, including somatic tissues from other lineages and germ cells. This has raised the intriguing possibility that chimerism may play an increasingly pervasive role in marmoset biology, ranging from natural behavioral implications to increased variability and complexity in biomedical studies. RESULTS: Using a quantitative PCR based methodology, Y-chromosomes can be reliably detected in the females with male fraternal twins allowing for a relative quantification of chimerism levels between individuals and tissues. With this approach in common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) and cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus), chimerism was detected across a broad array of tissues. Chimerism levels were significantly higher in tissues primarily derived from the hematopoietic lineage, while they were lower, though still detectable, in tissues with other origins. Interestingly, animals with a characteristic marmoset wasting disease show higher levels of chimerism in those tissues affected. Fibroblast cell lines from chimeric individuals, however, are not found to be chimeric themselves. CONCLUSION: Taken together, the levels of chimerism in tissues of different origins coupled with other lines of evidence suggest that indeed only hematopoietic cell lineages are chimeric in callitrichids. The chimerism detected in other tissues is likely the result of blood or lymphocytic infiltration. Using molecular methods to detect chimerism in a tissue sample seems to have allowed a substantial increase in the ability to detect these minor cell populations.

A molecular phylogeny of the tamarins (genus Saguinus) based on five nuclear sequence data from regions containing Alu insertions.

This study presents a molecular phylogeny of the Saguinus genus, based on the analysis of the DNA sequences of five nuclear loci with Alu insertions in 10 species. The concatenated alignment produced a polytomic arrangement with four main groups, although only two clades-the Amazonian (S. midas, S. niger, and S. bicolor) and the Colombian (S. leucopus and S. oedipus) tamarins-were statistically significant. The emergence of the midas-bicolor clade was estimated at about 5 million years ago (mya), and that of the Colombian clade, at 4.6 mya. The phylogenetic relationships among the mustached tamarins (S. mystax, S. imperator, and S. labiatus) remained unresolved, as did the internal arrangement of the midas group. The lack of a clear consensus on the phylogeny of this group may be related to rapid bursts of evolutionary change within the context of a highly dynamic environment, which may be difficult to resolve using the available quantitative approaches. On the other hand, the discrepancies between mtDNA and nDNA in resolving phylogenies strongly indicate the role of reticulated evolution in the evolutionary history of this group. We hope that the advance of whole genome sequencing technology and increasing information on nuclear markers and SNPs, coupled with a better understanding of the geological phenomena that took place in western Amazonia over the past 20 million years, will shed further light on the phylogenetic history of these New World primates.

Trans genomic capture and sequencing of primate exomes reveals new targets of positive selection.

Comparison of protein-coding DNA sequences from diverse primates can provide insight into these species' evolutionary history and uncover the molecular basis for their phenotypic differences. Currently, the number of available primate reference genomes limits these genome-wide comparisons. Here we use targeted capture methods designed for human to sequence the protein-coding regions, or exomes, of four non-human primate species (three Old World monkeys and one New World monkey). Despite average sequence divergence of up to 4% from the human sequence probes, we are able to capture ~96% of coding sequences. Using a combination of mapping and assembly techniques, we generated high-quality full-length coding sequences for each species. Both the number of nucleotide differences and the distribution of insertion and deletion (indel) lengths indicate that the quality of the assembled sequences is very high and exceeds that of most reference genomes. Using this expanded set of primate coding sequences, we performed a genome-wide scan for genes experiencing positive selection and identified a novel class of adaptively evolving genes involved in the conversion of epithelial cells in skin, hair, and nails to keratin. Interestingly, the genes we identify under positive selection also exhibit significantly increased allele frequency differences among human populations, suggesting that they play a role in both recent and long-term adaptation. We also identify several genes that have been lost on specific primate lineages, which illustrate the broad utility of this data set for other evolutionary analyses. These results demonstrate the power of second-generation sequencing in comparative genomics and greatly expand the repertoire of available primate coding sequences.

Characterisation of Mhc class I and class II DRB polymorphism in red-bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus).

The infection of red-bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus) with GB virus B (GBV-B) is an important surrogate model of hepatitis C virus infection in man. To fully exploit the value of this model, we have characterised MHC class I G and class II DRB alleles in eight tamarins representing a cross-section of a UK breeding colony. The results indicated a high degree of classes I and II DRB allele sharing. Each animal transcribed three to four putative surface-expressed class I alleles and two to four class II DRB alleles. Most animals also transcribed at least one class I allele predicted to result in a C-terminal truncated protein. These results represent the first description of MHC polymorphism in this species and provide a foundation for characterisation of MHC diversity in breeding populations of red-bellied tamarins. The data will facilitate the identification of associations between MHC polymorphism and control of viral infections, and detailed dissection of cellular immune responses against GBV-B.

Mitochondrial phylogeny of tamarins (Saguinus, Hoffmannsegg 1807) with taxonomic and biogeographic implications for the S. nigricollis species group.

Tamarins of the genus Saguinus, subfamily Callitrichinae, represent one of the most diverse primate radiations. So far, about 35 taxa have been described, but detailed information about their taxonomy and phylogeny is still lacking. To further elucidate the phylogenetic relationships and the biogeographic history within the genus, and to contribute to a more reliable classification of its taxa, we sequenced the complete mitochondrial cytochrome b gene and the hypervariable region I of the D-loop. Therefore, we mainly used fecal samples from wild tamarins collected during two expeditions to the Peruvian Amazon, an area of high tamarin diversity. Our data suggest that the numerous taxa of the S. nigricollis species group are derived from a common ancestor that separated from the other representatives of the genus ~10 mya. Most taxa of the S. nigricollis group form monophyletic clusters, which mainly originated in a single rapid radiation ~2.9 mya. S. fuscicollis and S. nigricollis appear as polyphyletic taxa, but we could identify various clusters, which are mainly consistent with differences in coat coloration. We could confirm most of the existing taxa as distinct entities and suggest species status for fuscicollis, illigeri, lagonotus, leucogenys, nigricollis, nigrifrons, tripartitus, and weddelli. Our genetic data do not support a separate status for melanoleucus and graellsi, but due to differences in fur coloration, we give them subspecies status. The species group most likely originated in western Amazonia and diversified during the decline of the Acre wetland and the formation of the Amazonian river system.

Métodos genéticos para la reintroducción de monos de los géneros Saguinus, Aotus y Cebus (Primates: Cebidae) decomisados en Bogotá, Colombia

Genetic methods for the reintroduction of primates Saguinus, Aotus and Cebus (Primates: Cebidae) seized in Bogota, Colombia. Primates are one of more confiscated taxa by the environmental authorities in Bogota, Colombia. During 2008, 133 monkeys were confiscated; samples from 115 of them were sequenced by the mitochondrial cythocrome oxidase II gene (mtCOII) and 112 sequences obtained were of high quality. These sequences were compared with those obtained by our research group from individuals directly sampled in the field, with precise geographic origin. So, a more specific geographic area of the Colombian territory could be considered for a correct rehabilitation treatment during the reintroduction of these confiscated animals. The main results with five primate species were: 1- For all the specimens analyzed of Saguinus leucopus, they could be liberated in any geographical area of its distribution range, since only one gene pool was found. 2- For the 14 Aotus sp. individuals sequenced from the SDA (Environmental District Secretariat), one of them (A. vociferans) was coming from the Amazon, seven exemplars belonged to A. griseimembra from the Magdalena Valley and the Colombian Caribbean coasts, four individuals represented to A. brumbacki from the Colombian Eastern Llanos, and two were associated to A. azarae azarae from Northern Argentina and Paraguay (which means that illegal traffic of animals is arriving to Colombia from other South-American countries). 3-Out 14 Cebus albifrons sequenced, two belonged to the geographical area of C. a. versicolor, one to C. a. pleei, 10 to C. a. leucocephalus and one could be not assigned because its sequence yielded a great genetic divergence with respect to the other specimens sequenced of this species. 4- The two Cebus capucinus sequenced showed to be associated to a gene pool found in the Northern of Chocó, Sucre and Córdoba Departments. 5- Out 11 Cebus apella sequenced, 10 showed to belong to the gene pool presented in the Colombian Eastern Llanos and highly related (but differentiable) to Cebus apella apella from the French Guyana. It could be named C. a. fatuellus sensu Groves (2001). One exemplar sequenced could be not related with the other C. apella analyzed, nor the related taxa to the aforementioned species (C. a. paraguayanus =C. cay; C. xanthosternos; C. nigritus). Rev. Biol. Trop. 58 (3): 1049-1067. Epub 2010 September 01.

Los primates son uno de los grupos de mamíferos más decomisados por la autoridades ambientales (SDA) en Bogotá, Colombia. Un total de 133 primates fueron confiscados en Bogotá durante el año 2008 y mantenidos en las instalaciones de la SDA. De ellos, 115 fueron secuenciados para el gen mitocondrial citocromo oxidasa II (mtCOII) y en 112 ejemplares, las secuencias obtenidas fueron de alta calidad. Esas secuencias se compararon con las obtenidas para ejemplares muestreados directamente en campo por nuestro grupo de investigación y con origen geográfico conocido. De ese modo, se pudo determinar las áreas geográficas, en el territorio colombiano, donde pueden liberarse esos ejemplares después del tratamiento de rehabilitación oportuno. Los resultados principales para las cinco especies de primates fueron como siguen: 1- Para Saguinus leucopus, los animales analizados pueden ser liberados en cualquier área geográfica dentro del rango de distribución de la especie, ya que solo se detectó un acervo genético sin estructura espacial. 2- Para los 14 Aotus sp. secuenciados procedentes de la SDA, se determinó que: uno de ellos pertenecía a A. vociferans, propio de la Amazonía; siete ejemplares pertenecieron a A. griseimembra, propio del valle del Magdalena hasta la costa Caribe colombiana; cuatro ejemplares representaron a A. brumbacki, de los Llanos Orientales de Colombia; y dos ejemplares se asociaron con A. azarae azarae del norte de Argentina y Paraguay, con lo cual se muestra que en Colombia se está recibiendo fauna ilegal procedente de otros países. 3- De los 14 Cebus albifrons secuenciados, dos pertenecieron al área geográfica de distribución de C. a. versicolor; uno al de C. a. pleei, 10 al de C. a. leucocephalus, y uno no pudo ser asignado ya que su secuencia mostraba gran divergencia respecto a los otros ejemplares secuenciados de esta especie. 4- Los dos Cebus capucinus secuenciados mostraron estar asociados a un acervo genético encontrado en el norte del Chocó, Sucre y Córdoba. 5- De 11 Cebus apella secuenciados, 10 mostraron pertenecer al acervo genético que se encuentra en los Llanos Orientales de Colombia y altamente relacionado a Cebus apella apella de la Guyana Francesa, aunque podrían representar un acervo propio de Colombia, C. a. fatuellus sensu Groves (2001). Un individuo no pudo ser relacionado con ningún grupo de los otros C. apella estudiados, ni con los taxones relacionados a la especie mencionada, pero, probablemente, con su propio estatus taxonómico (C. a. paraguayanus = C. cay, C. xanthosternos, C. nigritus).